Preventing of Gouty Arthritis Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Preventing of Gouty Arthritis - Essay Example This directed the need to study prophylaxis with colchicines for different durations. This article reviews the trial conducted to study different duration of colchicines for preventing recurrence of Gouty arthritis and critique the methodologies used and recommends areas of future research. Colchicine is used for prophylaxis treatment against recurrent attacks of gout. But the most suitable duration of its administration for gouty arthritis needs to be assessed. The researchers in this study have hypothesized three regimens of dosage that can be beneficial to the patients without causing any harm. All patients were treated with allopurinol to lower the level of uric acid stored in the joints and randomly divided into three groups, the dosage of drug was kept constant (1mg/day) in all the groups but the period of treatment differed in every group ranging from 3-6 months (group 1), 7-9 months (group 2),10-12 months (group 3). The study did not include a placebo group. All the groups under study belong to the same age group of people all were in their 50's also since statistics have confirmed for every 7-9 male affected there will be 1 female affected that accounts to be 3% of women, hence few women are included in the study just about 3 % in all groups. The normal upper limit of serum uric acid is 7mg/dl in men and 6 mg/dl in women. A change in uric acid level is one of the predisposing factors for recurrence of acute gouty arthritis hence all the patients selected for the study have a mean uric acid level of 8.5 (mg/dl). For detecting similarity between patients of each group they were divided to two subgroups; with recurrence of arthritis or without any episode of arthritis, and mean level of serum uric acid and age were compared using T-test the difference was insignificant. Thus the researchers have taken care of carefully dividing the groups and the groups are

Interprofessional Practice Social Work

Interprofessional Practice Social Work This essay will outline and explain why inter professional collaborative practice in social work is important. It will also examine key factors that help or hinder effective inter professional collaborative practice. It will explain why it is important that professionals work together and effectively as a team and the consequences that can occur when professionals fail to collaborate successfully. There has been a great deal of political and professional pressures for the development of inter professional collaborative practice. From the late 1990s onwards there were vast amounts of official documents to promote the importance of collaborative working within the health and social care sector. The 1998 social services White Paper Modernising Social Services (DoH, 1998) and The NHS Plan (2000) devoted entire chapters to the subject. It has been argued that inter professional working has advanced further in relation to services for older people than it has in relation to children and families. The Green Paper Every Child Matters (DfES 2003) recognised this and one of the main elements of this paper focused that improved collaboration was required so as not to repeat the tragic events of the Victoria Climbie case (this case will be discussed in further detail later in the essay). Government recognition suggests that many social problems cannot be effectively addressed by any given organisation acting in isolation from others. That is, when professionals work together effectively they provide a better service to the complex needs of the most vulnerable people in society. Inter professional collaborative practice involves complex interactions between a range of different professionals and is when professionals work together as a team to reach mutually negotiated goals through agreed plans. It is a partnership that can be defined as a formal agreement between the different professions who agree to work together in pursuit of common goals. Collaborative is defined as putting that partnership into operation or into practice. It involves the different professions working together and using their own individual skills instead of working in opposite directions to meet the needs of particular service users. It is suggested that when social workers and other professions work collaboratively the service user gets a better deal. Willing participation (Henneman et al, 19 95, cited in Barrett et al, 2005, p.19) and a high level of motivation (Molyneux, 2001, cited in Barrett et al, p.19) have been stated as vital aspects of effective inter professional collaboration. Social workers have certain ethical obligations to society that they must follow and this comes in the form of The British Association of Social Work (BASW) Code of Ethics and the National Occupational Standards for social workers. The Code of Ethics follow five basic values, Human Dignity and Worth, Social Justice, Service to Humanity, Integrity and Competence whilst the National Occupational Standards outline the standards of conduct and practice to which all social workers should adhere to. Whilst working in collaboration with other professionals, social workers should follow these Codes and Standards to ensure that the best possible outcome is achieved for the service user. In the past inter professional collaborative practice has been difficult with many disadvantages and that this has caused problems between the different professions involved. This has in the past led to catastrophic tragedies as in the case of Victoria Climbie. Shared accountability is important for effective collaboration and all professionals should be accountable. Each profession should support one another, not be seen as self interested and that no one profession is higher than another. Some of the problems that can occur are when there is not a logical distribution of power. Unequal power distribution can be oppressive (Payne, 2000, cited in Barrett et al, 2005, p.23) and can limit participation for some group members. Struggles for power are rooted in professional tradition and social difference. It is believed by some critics of social work that social workers have often been located in settings where they were considered as subordinate to other more established professional g roups (Brewer and Lait, 1980, cited in Wilson et al, 2008, p.401). Traditionally there have been difficulties within the medical profession and Cooke et al, (2001, cited in Barrett et al, 2005, p.23) suggests that general practitioners felt threatened by a redistribution of power and had problems letting go of their traditionally held power base. Social work in the past has been described as a semi profession and similar to nursing and teaching and not comparable to the learned profession of medicine or law as it does not have the required features of those professions (Freidson 1994). Payne (2000 cited in Barrett et al, 2005, p.23) identifies this as peoples capacity to get what they want. Power in inter professional collaborative practice should be shared and distributed and no hierarchy of power should exist. If some professionals see themselves as more powerful than another they are not meeting the needs of the service user. Being territorial and not sharing information and know ledge has long been a problem in inter professional collaborative practice. Molyneux (2001, cited in Barrett et al, 2005, p20) found that professionals who were confident in their own role were able to work flexibly across professional boundaries without feeling jealous or threatened. Professional adulthood was an expression used by Laidler (1991, cited in Barratt et al, 2005, p.20) to describe professionals who were confident in their own role to share information and communicate effectively with other professionals. These professionals do not feel territorial about relinquishing their knowledge and understanding to further enhance good inter professional collaborative practice. Stapleton (1998, cited in Barrett et al, 2005, p.20) suggests that a combination of personal and professional confidence enables individuals to assert their own perspectives and challenge the viewpoints of others. Open and honest communication is a vital and probably one of the most important aspects of inter professional collaborative practice. It requires professionals to take into account each others views, be respectful, dignified and to listen to each other without being highly critical of one another. Constructive criticism needs to be undertaken alongside constructive suggestions and encouragement and should take place at a time when other professionals are receptive. Active listening is an important skill. To be able to recognise and respond to what is being communicated is a fundamental skill. Professionals working collaboratively should demonstrate this verbally and non-verbally to each other. This is greatly helped if all concerned put aside the typical stereotyping of each others professions in order to hear and listen to what the speaker is saying. Keeping good eye contact and having good body language is just as important. It is estimated that approximately two-thirds of communic ation is non-verbal, i.e. something is communicated through body language by a body movement, a posture, an inflection in the voice (Birdwhistell, 1970, cited in Wilson, 2008, p.297). A breakdown in communication and the lack of sharing of information between the professions in the past have been major failings in inter professional collaborative practice for example in high profile child protection inquiries and this has led to tragic consequences. Effective systems of communication and knowing what information should be shared are essential not just between the professions but also between the service users. Trust, mutual respect and support are key features to inter professional collaborative practice. Trust was highlighted by many professionals as one of the most important factors in successful collaboration. When trust is absent professionals may feel uncomfortable and insecure in their role and this in turn can lead to defensive behaviour to counteract their insecurities. Stapleton (1998, cited in Barratt et al, 2005, p.22) suggests that trust develops through repeated positive inter professional experience and develops gradually over a period of time. Trust cannot be gained overnight so it is important for professionals working collaboratively to give one another time for trust to develop. When professionals feel valued, they feel respected. This can be achieved by actively listening to each other and having an insight into one anothers professions. Conflict between the professions can have a huge impact on the different professionals and service users. Loxley (1997, cited in Barrett et al, 2005, p.24) suggests that conflict is interwoven with collaborative practice. To counteract some of the problems associated with conflict it may be beneficial to all concerned to form ground rules. These ground rules could go some way to prevent and help the management of conflict and could include; open discussion and the obligation to be able to give each other honest feedback. Most importantly these ground rules need to benefit all parties involved. A great deal of emphasis is placed on social workers to critically reflect their practice. It literally means that social workers reflect on their practice before, during and after, thinking through tasks carefully. Other professionals may not do this in line with social workers beliefs of critical reflection or in the same way or see that reflection on their own practice is an important aspect of successful inter professional collaborative practice. To illustrate the above points a practice example will now be explained. The inquiry into the death of ten year old Victoria Climbie highlights the disastrous consequences when communication in inter professional collaborative practice fails. This child death case was fraught with communication breakdowns across the range of professionals associated with the case. In Lord Lamings report (2003) he draws attention to and illustrates lack of communication as one of the key issues. Victoria Climbie was failed by a system that was put into place to protect her. Professionals failed in this protection by not communicating with each other or with Victoria herself. One of the criticisms in the Laming Report (2003) was that none of the professionals involved in the case spoke to Victoria about her life or how she was feeling and suggests that even basic service user involvement was absent. There was an opportunity which is highlighted in his report that a social worker missed an opportunity t o communicate with Victoria by deciding not to see or speak to her while she was in hospital. It could be argued that if basic levels of communication with Victoria herself had been implemented, then more could have been achieved to protect her. It was not only a lack of communication with Victoria herself but a lack of communication between the professions that were investigated in the Laming Report (2003). Communication is equally important between the service user and the different professional bodies. Professionals are less effective on their clients behalf if they cannot communicate precisely and persuasively. (Clark, 2000, cited in Trevithick, 2009, p.117). For successful inter professional collaborative practice to work a combination of personal and professional skills are required, together with competent communications skills to enable the different professions to challenge the views of others. Recommendation 37 of the Laming Report (2003) states The training of social work ers must equip them with the confidence to question the opinion of professionals in other agencies when conducting their own assessment of the needs of the child. On at least one occasion, this did not happen when a social worker did not challenge a medical statement which turned out to be professionally incorrect which in turn led to the tragic eventual death of Victoria. Had the social worker challenged the medical opinion in this instance then it could be argued that more efficient communication and less confusion in the case may have saved Victoria. Alan Milburn (Hansard 28 January 2003, column 740, cited in Wilson et al, 2008, p.474), the then Secretary of State commented when introducing the Children Bill in the Commons that Victoria needs services that worked together and that down the years inquiry after inquiry has called for better communication and better co-ordination. Communication lies at the heart of high quality and successful inter professional practice and Victoria is just one case of when there is a lack of communication between the professionals and the devastating consequences that can arise. In conclusion, successful inter professional collaborative practice has many elements and all these different elements require that the different professions adopt them. Although inter professional working practice has been around for many years and is not new, it still needs to be continued, developed and incorporated into the daily work of all professions. When health and social care professionals from different disciplines truly understand each others roles, responsibilities and challenges, the potential of inter professional collaborative practice could be fully realised and many of the barriers alleviated, giving a more successful outcome to the service user.

Simpleton Kindness :: Values Virtues Kindness Essays, movies

Simpleton Kindness When people go to extremes in the name of selfless kindness, or in the case of Lloyd and Harry from Dumb and Dumber, when people who are motivated by attraction, desperation and kindness, go to extremes, more often then not something good happens in the end. Hollywood has a long standing tradition of lauding the bumbling hero who, though misguided, saves the day with little more than a kind heart and a strong will. Two examples of goodness conquering all are Tommy Boy and Dumb and Dumber. Both movies are highly comical, and play to the worst case scenario in the name of laughs, but underneath the comical exterior, the moral of both stories says, when people attempt to serve others or causes greater than themselves, goodness usually triumphs. After seven years in college, Tommy Callahan, who isn’t exactly the sharpest tool in the shed, finally graduates with a BA. He moves back to Ohio, where his dad owns an Auto Parts company. Despite his ineptitude, because his father owns the company, Tommy gets shot straight to the top of his father’s company. Not long after returning home, Tommy finds out his father is getting remarried. The excitement of having a new family is cut short when Tommy’s father dies of a stroke on his wedding day. Though the death of his Dad is troubling, there is little time to mourn. The family Auto Parts company relied heavily on the salesmanship of Tommy’s father, and without his drive and guidance, the company is in danger of getting bought out by a bigger corporation. With no experience to back him, and an academic past that does more to damage his credibility that establish it, Tommy volunteers to fill his father shoes, â€Å" I know I’m probably not the ans wer you guys are looking for but I feel like I oughta do something.† (Tommy Boy). The board has little confidence in Tommy, but they don’t have a better alternative, so Tommy sets out with the best of intentions, to save his fathers legacy, and the livelihood of his home town. Eventually Tommy succeeds in saving the business, exposing corruption in the process. Unlike Tommy Boy, in Dumb and Dumber, the motives of the main characters are highly mixed. The plot centers around Lloyd and his friend, and trusty side kick named Harry.

Most Intriguing Person I Have Met Essay

Introduction God is omnipresent and omnipotent. His representatives are Angels whose food is only fasting. They fly in the air as they take themselves very light. God and His angels could send only leaders, messengers, prophets to earth to proclaim about the goodness of God and to enable humanity to bear a fruitful life by following virtues and characteristics of God. He was disappointed, when it did not return expected results. God was on the look out for permanent person who is faithful, honest and trustworthy and who represent His kind-of on earth. God finally found â€Å"mothers† as his carnation, who would be kind, forbearing and have enough fortitude to transform hearts, minds and to spread the gospel of god’s goodness on earth. My mother was the most influential and inspirational person in my life until she passed away on February 28, 2004. Her life was extraordinarily courageous, hard working and self-reliant who lived a life in extreme hardships and confronted lachrymose situations. Read more: Essay the person I admire is my mother Mothers But Jesus turning to them said, â€Å"Daughters of Jerusalem, stop weeping for Me, but weep for yourselves and for your children.   Jesus at the time of carrying cross was experiencing great pain and agony. Even so, his heart moved when he saw women weeping for him. He felt that children should be the greatest priority in a woman’s life. Women who are the pillars of family, have the ability to transform lives through prayers. Prayer without penitence is a mere waste. Penitence brings tears and tears bring blessings from Heaven to families. This is exactly what Jesus meant by saying the above. Hard work â€Å"Hard work pays† is what she believed all through. Her single income, was insufficient to make both ends meet. Her financial planning, domestic chores, and struggle is absolutely inspiring, who had to question herself for every challenge she encountered and find answer all by herself alone. A unique life, while giving smiles outside, inside of her heart, there were volcanic pressures of all kinds and sizzles in life. My mother as a single parent, single income, executed hard work in rearing her children by providing good education, teaching life skills, settling the lives with good spouse and cherished the happiness with two daughters, two son-in-laws and four grand children. Spoke like a lioness with strangers and guarded her children like a hen that covered and protected her chickens under storms and strong winds. As a child I admired her initiativeness, courage and indispensable attitude. Amidst of huge loss in life, she sought happiness in devotion, gardening, social work and her grand children. Nobody could seize away her smiles and happiness even in the midst of life’s biggest storms. She prepared herself for every day. Her accostic approach to life was to see the positive side of life and never to look back. Her famous quote to me was â€Å"see the page, turn the page and do the work†. Long time before, she predicted that I would become a writer one day, which absolutely became true. Her absence now, declares â€Å"mothers are always right† and it is good for sons and daughters to carry the legacy of goodness of mothers to further generations, to spread a network of humility. After all, children should reflect with the moralistic features of parents. Courage In my childhood, her wake-me up rhyme was â€Å"cocks crow in the morning, to tell us to rise, for he who lies late, will never be wise. For early to bed and early to rise, makes a man, healthy, wealthy and wise.† She taught good things to her children and worked as a dedicated, determined and devoted mother. Bold and courageous even in trial period and solved the problems all by herself. She was deprived of all the happiness as a wife, she was entitled to, as any other woman. A Son who was expected to shoulder and strengthen his mother, in the absence of husband, suffered from a chronic illness for two decades, and at last passed away leaving her in great agony and depressment. Her energies, finances, effort to make her son survive, in order to just retain his presence on life’s long stage, were simply washed away with the passage of time. She survived this loss and tried to rebuild her life again, through her two daughters. Self-reliance & Self-less sharing Her another famous quote was â€Å"the works performed early in the morning in due diligence and early born children will take you to a land of success†. Situations make people strong, confident and courageous. She administered great respect for her sisters, brothers, friends and relatives and earned good name as â€Å"courageous and hard working† person. She respected, cared and helped all those she can in her employment. â€Å"Cut the coat according to the cloth† is what she believed in. Absolute and careful money management in providing needs for her children and without incurring any debts, all the hard-earned money, she saved for her children. After her retirement from government service, I expected a little rest and happiness to come her way as old age demands. She was attacked from a stroke and suffered for three years on bed in her final stage of battle in life. This made me to groan within, as to why good people are often chosen as silent sufferers and how things slip out of hand. A person who has passed through too many extreme situations in life, underwent much more struggle even in the last days of her life. Truly her passing way made me a whole new person to realize, that often good things are to be preserved and the teachings of mother can never be ignored. Conclusion â€Å"When Jesus therefore saw his mother, and the disciple standing by, whom he loved, he saith unto his mother, Woman behold thy son!†   Ã¢â‚¬Å"Then he saith he to the disciple, Behold thy mother! And from that hour that disciple took her unto his own home† Mother Mary, loved Jesus as her dear son. On crucifixion of Jesus, she was standing near the cross, in great tears. Jesus too was worried about his mother. He chose his dear disciple, to take care of Mother Mary. Jesus, discharged the duty as a dear son, which is a promising characteristic feature of Jesus, amidst of great suffering. Good mothers are very few, who sacrifice their lives and take pain to walk an ‘extra mile’ each time, for others sake. Hard working, courageous, self-less and sacrificial mother is an extraordinary mother whose character is entirely divine and philosophical. Such lives are blessed and those generations of children often build an ethical and moralistic society. My mother’s life was lead by God’s presence at every phase of her life and she did the best than any other ordinary mother could have done as better than what is received by her children, through her sincere and honest efforts. On her memorial service, the following lines were written by me: You have hatched our lives Leveled our wings. Just as birds fly with confidence We lead our lives to this day. Your unproclaimed good deeds speaks to us Although, you are away from us. Help us to day and tomorrow. May the Almighty bestow His presence To your near and dear offering Comfort and peace forever. Bid adieu Mother, ***

How Humanitarian Logistics Information Systems Can Improve Humanitarian Supply Chains

Howden How Information Systems Can Improve Humanitarian Logistics How Humanitarian Logistics Information Systems Can Improve Humanitarian Supply Chains: A View from the Field Michael Howden Humanitarian Consultant michael. [email  protected] com ABSTRACT Humanitarian logistics represents a broad range of activities taking place within humanitarian organizations, the bulk of these activities are also components of a broader humanitarian supply chain – the network involved with providing physical aid to beneficiaries.Humanitarian logistics information systems improve information flows, which integrates logistics units more efficiently with non-logistics units within the humanitarian supply chains and provides better feedback to donors, ensuring more effective operations. Humanitarian logistics activities occur across the disaster management cycle. Humanitarian logistics information systems not only improve logistics activities in each phase, but can improve the continuity of h umanitarian operations by sharing information throughout the transition of different disaster management cycle phases.Through collaboration between organizations, humanitarian logistics information systems also have the potential to reduce corruption and the market distortion which can occur during humanitarian operations. Keywords Humanitarian Operations, Logistics, Supply Chain Management, Information Systems, Disasters, Disaster Management AUTHOR’S BIOGRAPHY Michael Howden completed a Bachelor of Computer Systems Engineering from the University of Auckland and originally worked as a software engineer in New Zealand.He has worked for International Rescue Committee in Indonesia, Pakistan and Uganda developing and implementing their global logistics database ProLogs and for Save the Children US in Indonesia, developing logistics software and systems which were components of a broader supply chain management system. INTRODUCTION Within humanitarian operations logistics is requ ired to procure, store and distribute supplies for the assistance of beneficiaries. In order to function effectively humanitarian logistics must coordinate with other actors and be considered throughout the lifespan of humanitarian operations.This paper will explore how humanitarian logistics information systems can: 1. Integrate logistics units into the broader humanitarian supply chain throughout the organization. 2. Enhance logistics activities and provide continuous support across the preparedness, response, transition, recovery and mitigation phases of disaster management cycle. 3. Create new possibilities for collaboration between humanitarian organizations. In these ways humanitarian logistics information systems can also improve the efficiency and effectiveness of humanitarian operations.HUMANITARIAN LOGISTICS INFORMATION SYSTEMS IN THE HUMANIATARIAN SUPPLY CHAIN Humanitarian Logistics Humanitarian organizations can include government agencies such as United States Agency fo r International Development (USAID) and the United Kingdom’s Department for International Development (DFID), multilateral agencies such as the United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF) and the World Food Program (WFP), non-government organizations (NGOs) such as Save the Children and Medecins Sans Frontieres (MSF) and members of the International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement.Many humanitarian Proceedings of the 6th International ISCRAM Conference – Gothenburg, Sweden, May 2009 J. Landgren and S. Jul, eds. Howden How Information Systems Can Improve Humanitarian Logistics organizations will engage in long term development activities as well as disaster management activities supporting people affected by disasters. This paper will only discuss humanitarian logistics as it is applied in disaster management. Humanitarian organizations usually include logistic units which can have different functions depending on the organizations or even the disaster and can include: Procurement †¢ Warehousing †¢ Fleet Management †¢ Transportation (of both supplies and people) †¢ Asset Management †¢ Building Management †¢ Security †¢ Information Technology (IT) †¢ Radio Communications Humanitarian operations consist of a diverse range of activities, therefore logistics in this context can have a broader scope than in the commercial sector. Areas such as security and IT may be considered under logistics due to respective military or technical experience of logisticians, either currently or historically within an organization.Humanitarian Supply Chains In this paper a humanitarian supply chain refers to the network created through the flow of supplies, services, finances and information between donors, beneficiaries, suppliers and different units of humanitarian organizations for the purpose of providing physical aid to beneficiaries (Mentzer et al. 2001). Humanitarian supply chains include functionalities whic h do not typically fall into the field of humanitarian logistics.Managing relationships with donors, performing needs assessments, planning for supplies required and monitoring and evaluating the impact of distributed supplies, are usually the responsibility of non-logistics program units. Figure 1 presents a summary of the major flows within both humanitarian supply chains and humanitarian logistics. Proceedings of the 6th International ISCRAM Conference – Gothenburg, Sweden, May 2009 J. Landgren and S. Jul, eds. Howden How Information Systems Can Improve Humanitarian Logistics Figure 1.Humanitarian Logistics and Humanitarian Supply Chain Flows This paper will focus on the value of information systems for logistic units of NGOs within the humanitarian supply chain. Integrating Logistics into Supply Chain Management With the exception of organizations which specialize in disaster response or distribution, such as Medecins Sans Frontieres (MSF) and World Food Program (WFP) res pectively, the core business of humanitarian organizations tend towards health, education, protection and economic development.Logistics units are only considered as a function to support these activities of humanitarian organizations. Logistics units have traditionally been marginalized within organizations (Rickard, 2003) and logisticians have been â€Å"pigeonholed† in the field, making it hard to move into management positions (Chaikin, 2003). This has contributed to a silo mentality in regards to logistics within humanitarian organizations. Better integrating logistics with other units within the organization will form stronger humanitarian supply chains.In order to integrate logistics into broader humanitarian supply chains, a clear distinction is required between the two. In Indonesia, one major NGO moved all logistics functionality into a supply chain management unit. In the terms logistics and supply chain management are used interchangeably (Rickard, 2006) and perso nal discussions with humanitarian professional have revealed the there is not a clear distinction between the terms logistics and supply change management, and some have regarded any differences are semantics.In literature on humanitarian organizations there is a shift from logistics to supply chain management (Thomas and Kopczak, 2005) Humanitarian supply chains include units implementing programs, managing grants with donors, controlling budgets and monitoring activities which must coordinate with logistics units. Humanitarian supply chains cannot be built by solely increasing the capacity or responsibility of individual units, but are formed by Proceedings of the 6th International ISCRAM Conference – Gothenburg, Sweden, May 2009 J. Landgren and S. Jul, eds. HowdenHow Information Systems Can Improve Humanitarian Logistics the creation of stronger links between units within the supply chain. Humanitarian logistics information systems can improve the flow of information with other units, in a mutually constructive manner, improving the effectiveness of the humanitarian supply chain. Humanitarian logistics information systems can: †¢ Enhance needs assessments by ensuring that field staff know what supplies are available for beneficiaries, either in local warehouses, pre-positioned emergency stocks or from local and international markets. Share lists of supplies available in both local and international markets, including prices and lead times, logisticians to empower program staff to better plan their procurement activities. †¢ Keep program staff informed of procurement activities will help to develop an understanding of the constraints within logistics and create trust. †¢ Provide budget holder more accurate financial information regarding funds which are committed within the procurement process, to avoid the over or under spending of budgets. †¢Provide warehouse inventory reports to program staff to allow them to take more responsib ility for their supplies, and ensure that they are utilized effectively. †¢ Share information on the distribution of supplies to allow program staff to better monitor and evaluate activities and avoid the need for duplicate record keeping between logistics and programs. †¢ More accurately divide logistics overhead costs such as warehouse rental, transportation and logistic staff wages into program budgets according to the activities logistics is supporting.Information empowers program units to become more engaged consumers of logistic services. In this way information systems can integrate logistics into humanitarian supply chains and improve the effectiveness and efficiency of humanitarian operations. The improved information flow from humanitarian logistics information systems will also contribute to the overall effectiveness of the humanitarian operation. The Value of Information in the Humanitarian Supply Chain Information plays a significant role in humanitarian suppl y chains.In humanitarian supply chains is that the end recipient of aid (the beneficiary) is decoupled from the commercial transaction and has no direct influence over what supplies they receive (Gray and Oloruntob, 2006). The key decision makers within the humanitarian supply chain are the donors who are funding the operation and many NGOs regard the donor as the customer in the humanitarian supply chain (Beamon and Balcik, 2006). In commercial supply chains, the end recipient decides what supplies they require, and fulfillment can be easily evaluated by monitoring the receipt of these supplies.In humanitarian operations as supplies are determined by external assessments of the needs of the beneficiary, evaluating fulfillment become more difficult, as additional analysis must be done to determine if these needs have been met by the supplies. Figure 2. Donors, Humanitarian Organizations and Beneficiaries within the Humanitarian Supply Chain Humanitarian logistics information systems can provide accurate and timely information on what supplies are required, what supplies have been delivered to beneficiaries and in which locations.With this information Proceedings of the 6th International ISCRAM Conference – Gothenburg, Sweden, May 2009 J. Landgren and S. Jul, eds. Howden How Information Systems Can Improve Humanitarian Logistics evaluation units should be able to determine if those supplies have met the needs of the beneficiary. This feedback ensures that donors and humanitarian organizations are engaged and responsive to the beneficiaries, and supporting aid according to the beneficiaries needs.HUMANITARIAN LOGISITCS IN THE DISASTER MANAGEMENT CYCLE Response, Transition, Recovery, Mitigation and Preparedness The operations of humanitarian organizations in disaster management can be separated into four major phases: response, recovery, mitigation and preparedness (Haddow and Bullock, 2004). During humanitarian operations there will be overlap between act ivities from different phases, and a separate transition phase can be considered between the response and recovery phase (Asian Development Bank, 2004).Humanitarian supply chains must provide supplies to beneficiaries in each of these phases (Kovacs and Spens, 2007) and these activities require logistic support (Perry, 2007), although the volume, variety of supplies and urgency will change according to the phase. Humanitarian logistics information systems improve the effectiveness of logistics units throughout the disaster management cycle and can provide continuity throughout the phases. Figure 3. Disaster Management Cycle (Haddow and Bullock, 2004). PreparednessThe preparedness phase involves building the capacity to respond to a disaster, such as working with communities to ensure they know evacuation options, pre-positioning emergency response supplies and building organizational capacity to respond to disasters. These activities are ongoing and are implemented prior to the onse t of a crisis. Pre-positioned emergency response supplies tend to be less varied, as they are specific life supporting items, such as food, medical supplies, water and sanitation equipment, shelter, household kits, etc.The necessities of life are less dependent on the social, cultural or economic context of the disaster, therefore it is easier to standardize the supplies required. Also, because it is not known if these supplies will be available in local markets, or if markets may be disrupted by the disasters, they will need to be procured internationally. Both Medecins Sans Frontieres and the Red Cross have standard catalogues of items for emergency response. These items can be procured internationally, with pre-existing arrangements with vendors, and are also pre-positioned in warehouses globally, ready to be deployed. Chomilier, Samii van Wassenhove, 2003; Coyne, 2006). Organizationally NGOs need to ensure that they not only have staff trained to respond to emergencies, but that they have the systems and process in place to support these staff. 80% of the disaster response phase consists of Proceedings of the 6th International ISCRAM Conference – Gothenburg, Sweden, May 2009 J. Landgren and S. Jul, eds. Howden How Information Systems Can Improve Humanitarian Logistics logistics activities (Kovacs and Spens, 2007) therefore in the preparedness phase organizations should focus on building the capacity of logistics units. ResponseThe response phase occurs immediately after the disaster, and activities are focused primarily on saving lives and preventing further damage. Humanitarian operations are most reliant on logistics during the response phase as they distribute food, medical supplies and other necessities of life to affected populations, and lives will be dependent on the speed of logistics activities. The response phase may last from days to months, depending on the scale of the disaster. While the humanitarian logistics is most significant durin g the response phase, it is important to consider its role throughout the entire disaster management phase.Transition During the transition phase NGOs begin to look at providing ongoing assistance, such as temporary shelter and revitalizing basic social services (ref ADB). NGOs will also plan strategically to transition from implementing response activities to longer term recovery and mitigation programs. Logistics activities, such as identifying suppliers to in either local or international markets to provide supplies for longer term programs, ensure a smooth transition. Recovery The recovery phase involves aiding communities to return to their conditions prior to the disaster.These activities may include training people and distributing supplies for livelihood building, reconstructing houses, buildings and infrastructure and may be carried out over a period of months to years. Across both the recovery and following mitigation phases the supplies are no longer essential for the liv es of affected population and are therefore no longer required at such a high rate or with such short lead times. The activities across these phases are largely dependent on the social, cultural, economic and geographical conditions of the affected communities. These may vary hugely between different disasters.Humanitarian organizations supported fishermen affected by 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami by distributing new boats and fishing equipment whereas the needs of landlocked communities recovering from 2005 Kashmir Earthquake were quite different. Humanitarian organizations will also attempt to procure supplies locally in order to support local communities and avoid flooding local markets through the influx of external supplies. The recovery phase represents a significant proportion of the duration and funding of a humanitarian operation and may last from 5-10 years (ADB reference).In April 2005 the Government of Indonesia established a 5 year time frame for reconstruction after the In dian Ocean Tsunami, and activities are still ongoing at the start of 2009, indicating the long duration of the recovery phase. Recovery phase activities such as reconstruction and distributing supplies are essential for restoring the lives of affected people and require significant logistic support. Mitigation Mitigation involves increasing the resilience of communities to natural hazards to reduce the impact of disasters they cause. According to the specific vulnerability of the community these activities may include lanting mangroves to protect coastlines against cyclones, constructing dams and reinforcing buildings. Humanitarian organizations implementing these activities will require logistics support, although not typically at as large a scale as in the other phases. Proceedings of the 6th International ISCRAM Conference – Gothenburg, Sweden, May 2009 J. Landgren and S. Jul, eds. Howden How Information Systems Can Improve Humanitarian Logistics Summary Phase Preparedness Response Transition Recovery Mitigation Period Long Term Continuous Days – Months Months – Years Long Term Continuous Logistics Volume Low High Medium Low SuppliesRequired Specific standard supplies prepositioned for disaster response Specific standard supplies: Food, medical supplies, water and sanitation equipment, shelter, household kits, etc. Varied supplies depending on the context of the disaster: reconstruction material, livelihoods equipment Varied supplies Urgency Low High: Lead times for supplies can make the difference between life and death. Medium: There may be government and donor pressure to complete recovery activities Low Procurement of Supplies Local International Local-International Local Table 1. Humanitarian Logistics Throughout the Disaster Management CycleHumanitarian organizations are required to provide physical aid to beneficiary throughout the disaster management cycle. Although these activities differ in volume, variety of supplies and urge ncy, there is enough commonality that standard processes and systems can be used by logistics units throughout the disaster management cycle. This avoids the overhead of developing multiple standards and implementing new systems when transitioning between phases. It is therefore important to consider humanitarian logistics as operating in each of the phases of the disaster management cycle. Humanitarian Logistics beyond the Response PhaseA large amount of literature on humanitarian logistics and supply chain management focuses on the response phase of a disaster and pre-positioning of supplies done in the preparedness phase (Beamon, 2004; Beamon and Balcik, 2008; Maspero and Ittman, 2008; Oloruntoba, 2007; Rodman, 2004; Thomas, 2003; Thomas et al, 2005). This could be influenced by a number of factors: †¢ This is the phase in which logistics plays the largest role in proportion to the humanitarian operation. †¢ The key focus of the response phase is the preservation of liv es therefore improved logistics can be directly linked to lives saved.During other phases of disaster management, the outputs become more varied, such as providing trainings to teachers and medical professionals. Therefore impacts, such as better education levels and healthcare in communities harder to measure. †¢ The disaster response is the phase that creates the most media coverage, therefore may be the phase which experts outside of the humanitarian domain get the most exposure to and are most familiar with. Media coverage could also create a perception of more status with disaster response. This paper has shown that the field of humanitarian logistics is more broadly focused than just disaster response.More focus needs to be placed on the role of humanitarian logistics in the transition, recovery and mitigation phases of disaster management. It could be argued that humanitarian organizations already have a higher capacity for disaster response than for disaster recovery. I n Indonesia the Reconstruction and Rehabilitation Agency (BRR) claimed that in the response to the 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami: â€Å"No one died of starvation, there were no deaths due to a lack of medical care or disease, law and order was maintained and major infrastructure—including telecommunications and electricity—was restored within a few weeks time. In contrast during the recovery phase there have been delays, underperformance and corruption. Humanitarian logistics information systems can improve logistics activities in each of the phases of disaster management and also help to provide continuity to logistics operations throughout the disaster management cycle. Proceedings of the 6th International ISCRAM Conference – Gothenburg, Sweden, May 2009 J. Landgren and S. Jul, eds. Howden How Information Systems Can Improve Humanitarian LogisticsHumanitarian Logistics Information Systems across the Disaster Management Cycle Humanitarian logistics information sys tems must be able to operate across the entire disaster management cycle. In order to be applicable for all phases, they must be scalable to manage the large volumes of supplies during the response phase, as well as the high diversity of supplies across the recovery and mitigation phases and manage the flow of information from the preparedness phase to the response phase, and during the transition phase.A single humanitarian logistics information system which integrates information from all phases within the disaster management cycle will assist an organization in the complex task of transitioning their activities between the different phases. Preparedness NGOs prepare for disasters by pre-positioning emergency response supplies. It is equally important to implement humanitarian logistics information systems which can be utilized by logisticians responding to disasters.Logisticians must be trained to use these information systems and simulations should be run in preparation for thei r use in disaster response. Humanitarian logistics information systems should also be used to record what emergency response supplies are available at the onset of the disaster. In response to Cyclone Nagris in Myanmar one major NGO was better able to more efficiently send air shipment of emergency prepositioned supplies by having maintained records of the their volume and weight.This allowed the logistician to arrange the optimal charter flights required to transport the supplies. Response Humanitarian logistics information systems can eliminate the need for duplicate data entry and offer more timely and accurate information during the response phase (Lee and Zbinden, 2003). This not only increases the efficiency and effectiveness of the disaster response, but also assists in later phases of the disaster management cycle. After the response to the 2005 Kashmir Earthquake one NGO had a number of emergency response supplies remaining.However, due to a lack of proper information syste ms, it was unknown which donor funded the items, and what the donor’s regulations were regarding their use. As a result, they were unable to be distributed in response to flooding in Pakistan the following year. Where warehouse inventory reports are not maintained, it is common for surplus stock from emergency response not to be utilized and to go to waste. Transition Once the response phase is complete, humanitarian logistics information systems will enable organizations to know what supplies have been distributed, and what supplies are remaining.This will allow them to utilize surplus supplies in recovery activities or return them to pre-positioned stock and know what supplies were required, to better plan for the next disaster response. The transition phase will also typically involve the replacement of short term emergency response teams with longer term staff. If information regarding what supplies are currently stored in warehouses is not recorded, it may be forgotten a s staff leave, and the supplies may remain unutilized.Humanitarian logistics information systems can ensure that new staff are aware of what supplies are currently available, so they are able to utilize them. Recovery The recovery phase takes place over a period of years, which offers enough time for conditions to stabilize, and also the availability of funding, for humanitarian organizations to plan strategically and develop information systems. During disaster response humanitarian logistics operate in a realm of uncertainties and rapidly changing conditions. This is not an appropriate environment to develop, test or implement new systems.There are already enough unknown variables present, without introducing new systems or software, which may contain bugs or functionality which needs refining. Implementing new systems requires the investment of time and resources, and doing this during a disaster response will detract from the primary goal of the humanitarian operation – s aving lives. Developing humanitarian logistics information systems during the recovery phase provides the opportunity to involve the staff of the organization, which is essential, as the solution will be more appropriate to their needs and they will have ownership over it.New systems can be implemented through trainings and simulations, however it is more effective as having systems which have implemented within the operations of the organization and socialized with staff in the field. In this respect the recovery phase can offer a suitable environment to develop and test new information systems for humanitarian logistics which can then be applied to disaster response activities. In 2007 one major NGO developed a warehouse database in Indonesia to support their recovery activities following the 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami.In September 2007, they were able to deploy the same database in Proceedings of the 6th International ISCRAM Conference – Gothenburg, Sweden, May 2009 J. Land gren and S. Jul, eds. Howden How Information Systems Can Improve Humanitarian Logistics response to an earthquake in Indonesia. A staff member who was already using the database to manage supplies for the tsunami recovery effort was then easily able to use it to manage the distribution of emergency supplies in the area due to their familiarity with the system. MitigationAlthough logistics activities occur at a lower scale during the mitigation phase such as the procurement of supplies to reinforce buildings, it is important to ensure that humanitarian logistics information systems are still utilized by organizations, to ensure that they become standard practice with logistics units. This continuous use will institutionalize the systems within the organization and ensure the sustainability of their use across the disaster management cycle. HUMANITARIAN LOGISTICS INFORMATION SYSTEMS BETWEEN ORGANIZATIONSHumanitarian supply chains could be viewed more widely to include the multiple org anizations providing physical aid to beneficiaries in the same region. Humanitarian logistics information systems have the potential to enable better information sharing between organizations which can enhance the overall humanitarian operation (King, 2005). One area which could be improved by information systems is local procurement. Procurement is vulnerable to corruption through collusion between organization staff and vendors and the payment of bribes to choose specific vendors.Analysis of procurement data is capable of revealing trends and irregularities, indicative of corruption, such as consistently purchasing from specific vendors or certain purchasers always receiving higher than average quotes. This analysis would be more effective using procurement data from different humanitarian organizations in the same region, as comparisons could be made between prices, to monitor if one organization is paying significant more for similar items, which could indicate corruption within that organization.Humanitarian organizations often rely on local markets to provide supplies, however the large amount of purchasing activity following a disaster can often lead to inflation over supply and stock-outs. Complex analysis of purchasing trends from multiple humanitarian organizations, and improved information sharing with local vendors, could mitigate this, by spreading requirements over multiple vendors and informing them of expected demand. This could also allow humanitarian organizations to sustainably support and stimulate local markets.Although there are many challenges in encouraging collaboration between humanitarian organizations, better humanitarian logistics information systems could facilitate collaboration by creating more incentives to do so. CONCLUSION Humanitarian logistics units are actors in a broader humanitarian supply chain and information systems can help to build logistics capacity of while also building better links with other units, better integ rating logistics in the humanitarian supply chain.Humanitarian logistics information systems can improve the effectiveness of humanitarian supply chains by providing timely and accurate information regarding what supplies are required and have been delivered, enabling donors to be more responsive to the needs of beneficiaries. Humanitarian logistics operates across the disaster management cycle. Humanitarian logistics information systems can improve logistics activities in each of the phases and also help to provide continuity to humanitarian operations throughout the entire cycle.Humanitarian logistics information systems could also provide opportunities for better corruption prevention and market control through collaboration between different humanitarian organizations. Humanitarian logistics information systems can strengthen logistics units and integrate them with other units and across to the disaster management cycle to create more efficiency and effectiveness of humanitarian supply chains REFERENCES 1. Asian Development Bank (2004) Disaster and Emergency Assistance Policy, At: http://www. adb. rg/Documents/Policies/Disaster_Emergency/Disaster_Emergency. pdf, accessed 20 February 2009 2. Beamon, B. M. (2004), Humanitarian relief chains: issues and challenges, Proceedings of the 34th International Conference on Computers and Industrial Engineering, San Francisco, CA. 3. Beamon, B. M. and Balcik, B. (2008) Performance measurement in humanitarian relief chains, International Journal of Public Sector Management, 21, 1, 4-25 Proceedings of the 6th International ISCRAM Conference – Gothenburg, Sweden, May 2009 J. Landgren and S. Jul, eds. HowdenHow Information Systems Can Improve Humanitarian Logistics 4. Chomilier, B. , Samii, R. and van Wassenhove, L. (2003) The central role of supply chain management at IFRC, Forced Migration Review, 18, 18-19. 5. Coyne, J. (2006) Humanitarian Logistics: Musing Aloud, Monday Developments, 24, 20, 12-13. 6. Gray, R a nd Oloruntoba, R (2006) Humanitarian aid: an agile supply chain? , Supply Chain Management: An International Journal, 11, 2, 115–120 7. Haddow, G. D. and Bullock J. A. (2004) Introduction to Emergency Management, ButterworthHeinemann, Amsterdam 8. King, D. 2005), Humanitarian Knowledge Management, Proceedings of the Second International ISCRAM Conference, Brussels, Belgium, 1-6 9. Kovacs, G. and Spens, K. M. (2007) Humanitarian logistics in disaster relief operations, International Journal of Physical, 37, 2, 99-114 10. Maspero, E. L. and Ittman, H. W. (2008) The rise of humanitarian logistics, 27th Annual Southern African Transport Conference 2008, South Africa. 11. Mentzer, J. T. , DeWitt, W. , Keebler, J. S. , Min, S. , Nix, N. W. Smith, C. D. and Zacharia, Z. G. (2001) Defining Supply Chain Management, Journal of Business Logistics 22,2 12.Oloruntoba, R (2007) Bringing Order Out Of Disorder: Exploring Complexity in Relief Supply Chains, Proceedings 2nd International Confe rence on Operations and Supply Chain Management: Regional and Global Logistics and Supply Chain Management, Bangkok, Thailand. 13. Perry , M. (2007) Natural disaster management planning A study of logistics managers responding to the tsunami, International Journal of Physical Distribution & Logistics Management, 37, 5, 409-433 14. Rickard, J. (2003) A logistician’s plea, Forced Migration Review, 18, 9. 15. Rickard, J. (2006) Humanitarian Logistics: Musing Aloud, Monday Developments, 24, 20, 6-7. 6. Rodman, W. K. (2004) Supply Chain Management in Humanitarian Relief Logistics, Thesis, Department of Operational Sciences, Air Force Institute of Technology, Air University 17. Thomas, A. (2003). Humanitarian Logistics: Enabling Disaster Response, The Fritz Institute. 18. Thomas, A. and Kopczak, L. (2005) From Logistics to Supply Chain Management: The path forward in the humanitarian sector, Technical Report, Fritz Institute, San Francisco, CA, USA. Proceedings of the 6th Internati onal ISCRAM Conference – Gothenburg, Sweden, May 2009 J. Landgren and S. Jul, eds.

Charles de Gaulles Impact on Frances Re-emergence as a Great Nation essays

Charles de Gaulles Impact on Frances Re-emergence as a Great Nation essays Few individuals in history have had such a profound impact on the destiny of a nation as Charles de Gaulle, who from the time of his heroic refusal to accept the humiliating defeat of the French in 1940 at the hands of the rampaging Germans, to his resignation of the Presidency in 1969, symbolized French independence and guided his countrys re-emergence as a great nation. It may come as a surprise to those who are unfamiliar with French history that de Gaulle was just a colonel in the French Army at the start of Second World War. But he was no ordinary colonel, a fact that was belatedly recognized by the French government when, amidst the military debacle of May-June 1940, he was given command of the 4th Armored Division1, and then appointed as the undersecretary of defense just before the complete capitulation of the French government. Hence, it was only with a tenuous mandate to represent the French nation2 that de Gaulle made his famous call in a BBC radio broadcast on June 18, 1940 to his countrymen for resistance against the Germans. Given the ground realities at the time, De Gaulles appeal may have appeared quixotic, but his refusal to accept the armistice was, in the words of Pierre Manent, the decision from which the whole Gaullist epic sprang. (Manent, 202) In Frances darkest hour, de Gaulles defiance, gave faith and hope to his fellow Frenc hmen who had fallen into despair. From his exile in London, de Gaulle then set about doggedly lobbying for acceptance of Frances sovereignty by the Allied powers. He also single-handedly galvanized the expatriate Frenchmen, and the French resistance inside France, to join him in his fight against Nazi Germany by forming the Free French movement. During 1940-44, de Gaulle never compromised on the independence of his actions and by his unflinching will and sense of honor made himself the embodiment of the French state its...

12 Exploratory Essay Topics on Cultural Capital

12 Exploratory Essay Topics on Cultural Capital An exploratory essay is a form of paper that discusses a theme, topic or merely answers a question. While most are short, they require quite a good understanding of the topic to avoid repetitive or incorrect content. Writing an exploratory essay is no easy feat, especially if it is supposed to be on a difficult topic such as â€Å"cultural capital†. Before you embark on your way to working on this task you may want to learn a few common facts about cultural capital, such as the following: 1) Cultural Capital Can Exist in Three States Cultural capital has been divided into three separate forms: objectified, institutionalized and embodied. Each differs from the other in terms of content and usage in individual’s everyday life. While embodied and institutionalized cultural capital cannot be physically owned or objectified it can definitely be physically owned. Embodied cultural capital is what you generally obtained from your family members, while institutionalized cultural capital is attained from schools and colleges. 2) According to Bourdieu, Cultural Capital is an Area Where Social Inequality is Maintained Pierre Bourdieu has explained how different social classes have a different set of educational merits, knowledge, etc. The classes that show primary cultural transmissions are helped by educational systems to strengthen the transmissions. But on the way, the rest of the social classes is left behind, automatically giving rise to social inequality. Unfortunately, this merely reduces the cultural capital present in the given area/city/country. 3) Embodied Cultural Capital Is Attained Consciously An individual generally inherits this form of cultural capital from his/her predecessors. This capital includes patterns of behavior, tastes, learning patterns, etc. 4) Institutionalized Cultural Capital Consists of Education This type of cultural capital is the recognition that is received from institutions, usually in the form of educational merits. Institutionalized cultural capital helps people raise their social and financial capital. 5) Objectified Cultural Capitals Are Physical Objects That Could Be Possessed Objectified cultural capital is all that could physically be owned by an individual, be it a vehicle or even food rations. This cultural capital also helps one achieve economic benefit. 6) Early Education Drive Is Promoted among Children to Make Up for Any Cultural Capital Inequalities Since children start learning at a young age, educational institutes and schools try to promote the accumulation of cultural capital. In this way it does not matter if these children are from different socioeconomic classes, they all learn to enhance their cultural capital. This cultural capital will help children rise and attain their own place in the future of this world. Cultural capital is something that you learn at a tender age and carry all the way through your secondary school, high school, undergraduate school and even graduate school. The amount of cultural capital that you possess will determine how successful you will be. As understood, the higher the amount of cultural capital, the better the chances of you being prosperous in the long run. 7) Cultural Capital Could Be Increased by Exposing Yourself and Your Family to the Likes of Art and Theatre A number of experiments have been done to understand if being exposed to cultural activities could help increase the cultural capital attained by an individual or a family. In one such experiment, five families from different social classes and age groups were taken to visual arts galleries and cultural events. While some understood and recognized these well, others found it to be foreign. However, experts are certain that subjecting different people to cultural activities could certainly increase cultural capital of a particular nation. 8) Cultural Capital is Acts as an Asset These assets could be both perceptible and imperceptible, making sure that we attain social benefits and are able to climb up the social ladder with ease. These assets help us obtain financial capital as well. 9) Cultural Capital Promotes Human and Social Capital Human capital unites the personality features, knowledge and just about any kind of knowledge that help in producing an economic value of the individual in question. On the other hand, social capital is the overall value of the relationships that you have in the society. Experts state that cultural capital such as intellect, education is what enhances a person’s human and social capital. 10) Cultural Capital Promotes Health As per several researches and studies, health has a direct connection with cultural capital, which we do not seem to realize. Self-presentation is one of the many examples of cultural capital. Therefore, those who take care of their health are in turn taking care of their self-presentation, which proves that health has a link to cultural capital. Also, it has been noted that different classes that have different sets of cultural capitals take a different approach towards maintaining their overall health. 11) Embodied Cultural Capital Has Sub-Types As per Pierre Bourdieu, embodied cultural capital has three subtypes, each belongs to a specific social class. The three subtypes are: working class, middle class and bourgeoisie. 12) Technology is a Form of Cultural Capital In today’s world, technology is a great factor in terms of advancements in education. Not so surprisingly, technology makes of quicker and better learning. Therefore, experts have been seen claiming that certain forms of technology are actually cultural capitals. They have also done experiments between groups of students with and without any forms of technology. The results showed that the group of pupils, who were making use of certain forms of technology, such as computers and laptops, to study, performed better than those who did not. Not only are these facts intriguing, they also help us appreciate cultural capital. Once you get a complete understanding of the points stated above, it will be simpler to work on an exploratory essay. Along with coming up with an exceptional topic to break down and discuss, you could also jot down some solid points to make your essay a success. Don’t forget to check our guide that deals with expository essay on cultural capital as well as 20 topics on this matter for you to choose from. References: â€Å"Thomas Abel. Cultural Capital in Heath Promotion.† Susan A. Dumais. Sociology of Education. Volume 75, No. 1 (Jan., 2002). pp. 44-68. Eric L. Lesser. (2000). Knowledge and Social Capital: Foundations and Applications. Mick Matthys. (2013). Cultural Capital, Identity, and Social Mobility: The Life Course of Working-Class University Graduates. Pierre Bourdieu. The Forms of Capital. William E. Deal and Timothy K. Beal. (2004). Theory for Religious Studies. Louise C. Johnson. (2009). Cultural Capitals: Revaluing the Arts, Remaking Urban Spaces.

Definition of Monopsony

Definition of Monopsony Monopsony is a market structure in which there is only one buyer of a good or service. If there is only one customer for a certain good, that customer has monopsony power in the market for that good. Monopsony is analogous to monopoly, but monopsony has market power on the demand side rather than on the supply side. A common theoretical implication is that the price of the good is pushed down near the cost of production. The price is not predicted to go to zero because if it went below where the suppliers are willing to produce, they wont produce. Market power is a continuum from perfectly competitive to monopsony and there is an extensive practice/industry/science of measuring the degree of market power. As an example, for workers in an isolated company town, created by and dominated by one employer, that employer is a monopsonist for some kinds of employment. For some kinds of U.S. medical care, the government program Medicare is a monopsony.

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The Sutras, Samkhya Philosophy

The Sutras, Samkhya Philosophy The Sutras are built on a foundation of Samkhya philosophy. The division into the Eight Limbs (Sanskrit Ashtanga) of Yoga is reminiscent of Buddhas Noble Eightfold Path; inclusion of Brahmaviharas (Yoga Sutra 1:33) also shows Buddhisms influence on parts of the Sutras. In the Yoga Sutras, Patanjali prescribes adherence to eight limbs or steps (the sum of which constitute Ashtanga Yoga, the title of the second chapter) to quiet ones mind and achieve kaivalya. The Yoga Sutras form the theoretical and philosophical basis of Raja Yoga, and are considered to be the most organized and complete definition of that discipline. Yoga Sutras of Patanjali is a book of 195/6 separate phrases that are designed to be easy to memorize. Because it is a work that is every bit as much a part of modern yoga as it was a part of the birth of yoga, this particular book is held in very high esteem in the yoga world. Philosophical Background There are several philosophical concepts, which were pondered over by various schools of thought around 600 B.C. to 400 A.D. in eastern region of the world. The school of Samkhya is one of those philosophical systems. Samkhya, marks the shifting of idea from Vedic monism to the concept of dualism as the primary cause of the universe. In Samkhya philosophy it distinguishing between Self (Spirit/Consciousness Purusha) and Matter/Nature (Prakrti) is of central importance to Samkhya Philosophy. Samkhya Philosophy elaborates a fundamental dualism between such aware Selves and all the phenomena that is presented to such Selves by Matter/Nature. Such phenomena of Matter/Nature includes reflections of the intellect, the faculty that makes things personal (the I-Maker/Ahamkara), the instinctual mind (manas), the capacities to perceive sense data, the capacities to act, the principles of the elements of sense perception, and the gross elements. These arise when Prakriti is in the presence of a Purusha, and they become enmeshed and entangled when there is mis-identification between Prakriti and Purusha. False confusion between the Self and what is not the Self is considered the fundamental ignorance that perpetuates bondage in this world. Liberation is sought by becoming aware of such distinctions on a very deep level of pe rsonal knowledge, so that one may eventually use the great faculty of the mind intellectual reflection (Buddhi/Mahat) without mistakenly identifying it with the Purusha, and then the effects of such entanglement will unravel and one will no longer be bound by incarnations or confused by Prakriti In Samkhya philosophy a guna is one of Prakritis three tendencies: tamas, sattva, and rajas. Guna is the tendency of the mind and not the state. For instance, sattva guna is that force which tends to bring the mind to purity but is not purity itself. Similarly rajas guna is that force which tends to bring the mind to perform some action but is not action itself. Sattva (originally being, existence, entity) has been translated to mean balance, order, or purity. This typically implies that a person with more of Sattva has a positive or even orderly state of mind. Such a person is psychologically kind, calm, alert and thoughtful. Rajas leads one to activity. This type of activity is explained by the term Yogakshem. Yogakshem is composed of two words: Yoga and Kshem. Yoga in the present context is acquiring something that one does not have. Kshem means losing something that one already has. Rajas is the force that creates desires for acquiring new things and fears for losing something that one has. These desires and fears lead one to activity. Tamas has been translated to mean too inactive, negative, lethargic, dull, or slow. It is the quality of inertia which provides coherence for all things. Mentally, it is associated with darkness, delusion, or ignorance. A tamas quality also can imply that a person has a self-destructive or entropic state of mind. That person is constantly pursuing destructive activities. Vedanta maintains that Brahman is the only Immaterial Sentient Existence; and being non-material and simple, It has to be all pervading and the only One Reality. Before everything there exists Reality as Absolute Consciousness. The Will to become many is the beginning of manifest universe. The Will evolves as Illusion: the Maya. Absolute Consciousness, Brahman, willed to become many, this is Maya. Maya is the cosmic illusion that creates ignorance and veils the vision of the Only Reality. Due to the power of Maya, the Same Oneness is perceived as manifold universe. Absolute Consciousness was never modified, is not modified, and will not be modified. This is the basis of Advaita Vedanta. Based on their experiences the seers or rishis of ancient ages came to the conclusion that the entire manifest universe is the illusory expression of One Substance -the Absolute Universal Consciousness. Samkhya with its dual philosophy is said to be the foundation of The Yogasutras and Purusa and Prakriti are a fundamental part of the text. The origin of the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali is the topic of some debate among both historians and practitioners. For instance, there are some people who credit the writing of this set of sutras to a grammarian named Patanjali. Later, though, a timeline was constructed that showed that to be unlikely. Within the yoga community, though, many say that Patanjali was actually just a compiler and that before the work was written, the Sutras were simply memorized and passed down between teacher and student. Timelines do, though, suggest this text was constructed in about the second century B.C. An objective study might well suggest that Patanjali lived within even a more tight range of 200 BC to 200 AD (or around the time of Jesus), than some common suppositions (as if he were the 2nd century BCE grammarian by the same name) or even the second or third centuries CE based on the dates of the first extant commentary (by Vyasa). ATHA YOGANUSASANAM Atha = now, Yoga = Of Yoga, Anusasanam = exposition or instruction. Now the exposition of Yoga is being made. (Patanjali Ch-1, Vs-1) The name of this text is named using Sanskrit words: yoga, is a mindset wherein you are able to gain mastery of feelings and thoughts alike. Sutra literally means thread. This thread is basically the connection between the sutras in the work. These Sutras are just combinations of words threaded together sometimes not even well formed sentences with subjects, predicates and so on. Within the space of these 196 short Sutras, the entire science of Yoga is clearly delineated: its aim, the necessary practices, the obstacles one may meet along the path, their removal, and precise descriptions of the results that will be obtained from such practices. (Sri Swami Satchidananda The Yoga Sutras of Patanjali Ch-1, Pg-1). (b) Give a brief summary of the four chapters The sutras in the text are divided into four books (chapters). Fifty one of the sutras are contained in the book called Samadhi Pada, fifty five of them are in Sadhana Pada, fifty six are also in Vibhuti Pada, and thirty four of the sutras can be found in Kaivalya Pada. Yoga Sutras Chapter 1 Concentration Samadhi Pada The book Samadhi Pada contains sutras that are most considered fundamental to yoga. It emphasizes that yoga is about discipline and that it is the ability to master your feelings and thoughts. Many of the most famous yoga sutras come from this particular book Concentration: Chapter 1 of the Yoga Sutras is entitled Samadhi Pada, which means the chapter on concentration. Chapter 1 describes yoga, witnessing five kinds of thoughts, uncoloring thoughts, the twin principles of practice and non-attachment, the stages of concentration, efforts and commitments, obstacles and solutions, and means and results of stabilizing the mind. . Yoga Sutras Chapter 2 Practice Sadhana Pada In the Sadhana Pada, there is much about practice since the Sanskrit word sadhana actually does mean practice. This chapter is where Kriya Yoga and the eight limbs of yoga first appear. These aspects reflect the idea that yoga is both selfless and spiritual. Practices: Chapter 2 of the Yoga Sutras is entitled Sadhana Pada, which means the chapter on practices. Chapter 2 outlines specific tools of attention that are used to systematically carve out, or cut away the obstacles of the inner mental shield that is blocking the light of the Self within. This includes the first 5 of the 8 rungs of yoga, known as ashtanga yoga. Yoga in the form of action (kriya yoga) has three parts: 1) Training and purifying the senses (tapas), 2) Self-study in the context of teachings (svadhyaya), 3) Devotion and letting go into the creative source from which we emerged (iswara pranidhana). (tapah svadhyaya ishvara-pranidhana kriya-yogah) Tapah = literally heat accepting the purifying aspects of painful experience, purifying action, training the senses Svadhyaya = lit ones own or self-study in the context of teachings, remembrance of sacred word or mantra Iswara = creative source, causal field, supreme Guru or teacher. Omniscient But not Omnipotent pranidhana = practicing the presence, dedication, devotion, surrender of fruits of practice, or contemplation. Kriya-yogah = yoga of practice, action, mental purification Kriya Yoga: When thinking about life and spiritual practices, it is easy then to remind yourself of this foundation by internally saying such words as, I need to train my senses, explore within, and let go of these attachments and aversions. Contained in a simple sentence like this is the outline of Kriya Yoga (that simple sentence contains tapas, svadhyaya, and ishvara pranidhana). Iswara pranidhana: The emphasis of iswara pranidhana practice is the release or surrender that is done in a sincere, dedicated, or devotional attitude. It is easy to get caught up in debates over the nature of God, Guru, creative source, and teacher. Yoga is very broad and non-sectarian, leaving it open to each individual how to perceive these realities. The more important part is that of letting go rather than holding on to the images and desires of the senses (tapas) and the personal characteristics and makeup uncovered through introspection (svadhyaya). Iswara: In the Upanishads, the word Ä ªÃƒâ€¦Ã¢â‚¬ ºwara is used to denote a state of collective consciousness. Thus, The Lord is not a being that sits on a high pedestal beyond the sun, moon, and stars; Iswara is actually the state of Ultimate Reality. But due to the lack of direct experience, The God has been personified and given various names and forms by religions throughout the ages. When one expands ones individual consciousness to the Universal Consciousness, it is called Self-realization, for the individual self has realized the unity of diversity, the very underlying principle, or Universal Self, beneath all forms and names. This is the fundamental difference between monism and dualism, one is essentially theistic and the other is not. Yoga Sutras Chapter 3 Progressing Vibhuti Pada The Vibhuti Pada can be translated power. The roles of the sutras in this particular book are to describe and help the yogi to achieve full awareness through yoga. It is essentially about attaining higher levels of awareness of ones self. Progressing: Chapter 3 of the Yoga Sutras is entitled Vibhuti Pada, which means the chapter on progressing. Chapter 3 starts by presenting the last 3 of the 8 rungs of yoga, which are concentration, meditation, and samadhi, collectively known as samyama. The rest of the chapter explains how samyama is used as the finer tool to remove the subtler veils of ignorance. The last three rungs of Yoga: Dharana (concentration), dhyana (meditation), and samadhi are the final three rungs of Yoga. Dharana: Concentration is the process of holding or fixing the attention of mind onto one object or place. Dhyana: Meditation is sustained concentration, whereby the attention continues to hold or repeat the same object or place. Samadhi: Samadhi is the deep absorption, wherein only the essence of that object, place, or point shines forth in the mind, as if the mind were devoid even of its own form. Stages of attention: It is attention itself, which is progressively moving inward through these few stages: Attention leads to concentration (dharana). Concentration leads to meditation (dhyana). Meditation leads to absorption (samadhi). Yoga Sutras Chapter 4 Liberation Kaivalya Pada Meaning of Kaivalya: The fourth chapter of the Yoga Sutras is entitled Kaivalya Pada. The word Kaivalya literally translates as isolation. It is usually taken to mean liberation or enlightenment. However, the way in which isolation is a quite effective term is that pure consciousness or purusha is now standing alone, separate from all of the manifestations of prakriti, including literally all of the manifestations or swirlings of all levels of the mind field. In Sutra 1.16 supreme non-attachment is mentioned as a stage beyond the many other levels of attachment. Sutra 4.32 explains how the primary elements called gunas have finished their purpose and recede in perfect equilibrium into that from which they arose. These are aspects or byproducts of the process of the isolation (kaivalya) of pure consciousness (purusha). Purusa is literally liberated from its attachment to Prakriti. The purpose of the whole of creation is to give us a context for understanding what we are and what we are not. When we understand that, then there is kaivalya, and prakrti has fulfilled its purpose. A person who experiences kaivalya sees prakrti, the material world, simply as it is, with no meaning beyond that. Kaivalya describes the effect on the personality of being in a continuous state of samadhi. This is the state of inner freedom that yoga strives for. A person in the state of kaivalya understands the world so well that he stands apart from it in the sense that he is not influenced by it, although he may well be in a position to influence the world. People in kaivalya behave like normal people, but they do not carry the burden of the world on their shoulders. They live in the world, but they are not subject to it. They are not free from sensual perception or free of the body, they have a foot in both worlds. Wherever they happen to be, they are sure of themselves. That is kaivalya. External forces have no power over a person like this, though he knows the external world very well. (c) Choose two of the following topics: Yogic concept of the mind The Kleshas Kriya Yoga Significance of Iswara The Siddhis The Yogic concept of the mind YOGAS CITTA VRTTI NIRODHAH Yogas = Yoga, Chitta = of the mind stuff, Vritti = modifications, Nirodhah = restraint. The restraint of the modifications of the mind stuff is Yoga (Patanjali Ch-1, Vs-2) In this Sutra Patanjali gives the goal of Yoga. For a keen student this one Sutra would be enough because the rest of them only explain this one. If the restraint of the mental modifications is achieved one has reached the goal of Yoga. The entire science of Yoga is based on this. Patanjali has given the definition of Yoga and at the same time the practice. If you can control the rising of the mind into ripples, you will experience Yoga (Sri Swami Satchidananda The Yoga Sutras of Patanjali Ch-1, Pg-3,4). Normally, the word Yoga is translated as union, but for a union there should be two things to unite. In this case, what is to unite with what? So here we take Yoga to mean the Yogic experience. The extraordinary experience gained by controlling the modifications of the mind itself is called Yoga (Sri Swami Satchidananda The Yoga Sutras of Patanjali Ch-1, Pg-4). There is a Sanskrit saying; Mana eva manushyanam karanam bandha mokshayoho. As the mind, so the man; bondage; or liberation are in your mind. If you feel bound, you are bound. If you feel liberated you are liberated. Things outside neither bind nor liberate you; only your attitude toward them does that. These vrittis, or mental activities/modifications, are said to be either painful, or not painful. They are five-fold :- PRAMANA VIPARYAYA VIKALPA NIDRA SMRTAYAH Pramana = right knowledge; Viparyaya = misconception, Vikalpa = verbal delusions, Nidra = sleep, Smritayah = memory The are right knowledge, misconception, verbal delusion, sleep and memory (Patanjali Ch-I, Vs-6 ) Patanjali explains that right-knowledge can be acquired by direct perception, inference, or testimony. In other words, one can sail the ocean personally and bring back direct knowledge, or one can hear of the travels undertaken by another sailor explorer, or one can read the book written by the sailor on his return. Even right-knowledge is however limited as the original sailor still cannot know everything there is to know about the ocean he is exploring. Wrong-knowledge is likened to the delusion we experience when we see something and believe it to be something else, such as a snake in the dark which proves to be nothing but a rope when seen in daylight. Imagination is perception which is coloured by fanciful thoughts or dreams. The dreaming phase of sleep known as the REM phase is littered with random thought patterns, but even the deep-sleep stage, which leaves no conscious trace in the mind, is actually a stage of thought. The sleeper knows nothing, but knows that he knew nothing on waking. All extraneous thought is temporarily suspended and only the thought of emptiness remains to leave an impression on waking. Memory is the process of remembering past experience. Each memory is first processed to make it palatable, and then filed for future reference, leaving an impression in the mind. These impressions can either remain on the surface of the mind and be recalled at will, or sink to the bottom where they take root. Patanjali describes the restless mind as outgoing (paranga cetana) and the quiet inward-turned mind as (pratyak cetana) I.29. When the mind focuses on external influences the Self appears to assume the forms and images projected by the mind. When the vritti activities are quietened through sensory withdrawal, concentration, and meditation, man is said to rest in his true nature. Patanjali gives us two tools which will help us control the mind abhyasa or regular, sustained practice, and vairagya, a process of detachment from objects of desire, which is attained as a direct result of abhyasa. Patanjali likens both states of mind to a mirror. When the mirror is dusty or smeared, it reflects a distorted image of whatever it reflects. When the mirror is cleaned the image is reflected without distortion, shining in its own essence samadhi. Patanjali concludes by saying that success in Yoga depends on the strength of our desire for enlightenment, and the amount of effort we are prepared to put into our practice. The Siddhis KAYEDRIYA SIDDHIR ASUDDHI KSAYAT TAPASAH Kaya = body, Indriya = senses, Siddhi = occult powers, Asuddhi = impurities, kshayat = due to destruction, Tapasah = austerities. By austerity, impurities of the body and senses are destroyed and occult powers gained. (Patanjali Ch-2, Vs-43) Siddhi is a Sanskrit word that literally means accomplishment, attainment, or success. It is also used as a term for spiritual power (or psychic ability). The term is used in that sense in Hinduism and Tantric Buddhism. These spiritual powers supposedly vary from relatively simple forms of clairvoyance to being able to levitate, to be present at various places at once, to become as small as an atom, to materialize objects, to have access to memories from past lives, and more. There are many perspectives of attaining Siddhis. One school of thought states that they are a normal set of occurrences that should not be focused upon because they will pull one from the path. Other perspectives hold that each siddhi should be pursued because it will allow one to understand the power of the Godhead. Siddhis may occur in many ways: naturally though the agency of karma, as a result of extended practice (sadhana), through rigorous austerities (tapasya) or by grace. They are often mentioned in conjunction with Riddhi (pl Riddhis), which means material or worldly wealth, power, luxurious lifestyles, etc. TRAYAM EKATRA SAMYAMAH Trayam = the three; Ekatra = upon one object; samyama = the practice of dharana, dhyana and samadhi. The practice of these three (dharana, dhyana and samadhi)upon one object is called samyama. (Patanjali Ch-3, Vs-4) From the practice of samyama, come the siddhis. You dive deeply into an object or idea, and it releases its secrets. In a way, scientists have done samyama on the atomic particles. The particles released their energy, and the scientists got the knowledge of them. They accomplished the truth behind the particles. Samyama is usually done on objects or ideas connected with results. When the results come, you call them siddhis or vibhuti. (Patanjali Ch-3, Pg-177). TAD VAIRAGYAD API DOSA BIJA KSAYE KAIVALYAM Tad = that; Vairagyat = by non attachment; Api = even; Dosha bija = seed of bondage; Kshaye = destroyed; Kaivalyam = independence. By non attachment even to that (all these siddhis), the seed of bondage is destroyed and thus follows Kaivalya (Independence) (Patanjali Ch-3, Vs-51) This means that all those siddhis are beautiful, but they will bind us, because siddhis are the outcome of the mind. The mind wants something. It wants to achieve this or that. What for? To be proud of itself, It develops ego, It makes your I and mine bigger, Selfish desires are still there. So are the siddhis bad? If so why are they there? I say they are not bad. They are beautiful; they are good. When? They come to you. When you run after them they are bad. Thats all the difference. Let the siddhis come and beg. Dont become a slave or attached to siddhis let them come to you and be used as tools (Sri Swami Satchidananda The Yoga Sutras of Patanjali Ch-3, Pg-199,200). Nine main Siddhis Parkaya Pravesha: Parkaya Pravesh means ones soul entering into the body of some other person. Through this knowledge even a dead body can be brought to life. Haadi Vidya: This Vidya or knowledge has been mentioned in several ancient texts. On acquiring this Vidya, a person feels neither hunger nor thirst, and can remain without eating food or drinking water for several days at a stretch. Kaadi Vidya: Just as one does not feel hungry or thirsty in Haadi Vidya, similarly in Kaadi Vidya a person is not affected by change of seasons, i.e. by summer, winter, rain, etc. After accomplishing this Vidya, a person shall not feel cold even if he sits in the snow-laden mountains, and shall not feel hot even if he sits in the fire. Vayu Gaman Siddhi: Through this Siddhi a person can become capable of flying in the skies and traveling from one place to another in just a few seconds. Madalasa Vidya: On accomplishing this Vidya, a person becomes capable of increasing or decreasing the size of his body according to his wish. Lord Hanuman had miniaturized his body through this Vidya while entering the city of Lanka. Kanakdhara Siddhi: One can acquire immense and unlimited wealth through this Siddhi. Prakya Sadhana: Through this Sadhana a Yogi can direct his disciple to take birth from the womb of a woman who is childless or cannot bear children. Surya Vigyan: This solar science is one of the most significant sciences of ancient India. This science has been known only to the Indian Yogis; using it, one substance can be transformed into another through the medium of sun rays. Mrit Sanjeevani Vidya: This Vidya was created by Guru Shukracharya. Through it, even a dead person can be brought back to life. I recognise some of these Siddhis from the Shaman rituals that are carried out, for example the native americans used rituals/dances and trances to empthise and take on the characteristics and power of wolves and eagles, wearing feathers and or wolf hide etc. to help invoke the powers. (d) List the yamas and niyamas and give a brief translation of their names. Do you feel they are rules to be observed? Or are they the result of sustained practice of yoga? Yamas: There are many interpretations of and opinions about the yamas and niyamas. While the ancient Indian text, the Bhagavata Purana assigns 12 yogic restraints the Parashar Smriti, another text, puts forward ten. But the yamas as described in Patanjalis Yoga Sutras there are only five, which are also known as the great universal vows or the sarvabhauma maha vratas, because they are not limited by either class, creed, time or circumstances. They are the guidelines for how we interact with the outer world, the social disciplines to guide us in our relationships with others. These five are: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Ahimsa (non-violence), à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Satya (truthfulness), à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Asteya (non-stealing), à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Brahmacharya (celibacy) and à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Aparigraha (non-covetousness) Niyamas: The niyamas are the second constituents of Ashtanga Yoga. How we interact with ourselves, our internal world. The niyamas are about self-regulation-helping us maintain a positive environment in which to grow. Their practice harnesses the energy generated from the cultivation of the earlier yamas. According to sage Yajnavalkya, there are ten niyamas and the Bhagavad Gita lists 11 constituents. But Patanjali names only five: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Shaucha or purity, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Santosha or contentment, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Tapa or austerity, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Swadhyaya or self-education and à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Ishwar-Pranidhan or meditation on the Divine The Benefits of Practicing Yamas and Niyamas: The yamas and niyamas help in managing our energy in an integrative manner, complementing our outer life to our inner development. They help us view ourselves with compassion and awareness. They help in respecting the values of this life, in balancing our inner growth with outer restraint. In short they help us to lead a conscious-life. Yamas and niyamas are not about right and wrong. They are about being honest with the true Self. Living according to these principles are about living our lives in a better way, about moving towards an understanding, about making it possible to connect with the Divine. (e) Define the terms dharana, dhyana and samadhi. Briefly summarise the differences between them. The last three rungs of Yoga: Dharana (concentration), dhyana (meditation), and samadhi are the final three rungs of Yoga. Dharana: Concentration is the process of holding or fixing the attention of mind onto one object or place. DESABANDHAS CITTASYA DHARANA Desabandhah = binding to one place; chittasya = of the mind ; dharana = concentration. Dharana is the binding of the mind to one place, object or idea. (Patanjali Ch-3, Vs-1). Dhyana: Meditation is sustained concentration, whereby the attention continues to hold or repeat the same object or place. TATRA PRATYAYAIKATANATA DHYANAM Tatra = therein; Pratyaya = flow of cognition; Ekatanata = continued; Dhyanam = meditation. Dhyana is the continuous flow of cognition toward that object. (Patanjali Ch-3, Vs-2). Samadhi: Samadhi is the deep absorption, wherein only the essence of that object, place, or point shines forth in the mind, as if the mind were devoid even of its own form. TAD EVARTHMATRA NIRBHASAM SVARUPA SUNYAM IVA SAMADHIH Tad eva = that (meditation) itself; Arthamatra = the object alone; Nirbhasam = shining; Svarupa = of its own form; Sunyam = devoid of; Iva = as if samadhih = contemplation. Samadhih is the same meditation when there is the shinig of the object alone, as if devoid of form. (Patanjali Ch-3, Vs-3). The differences between Dharana, Meditation and Samadhi are subtle but profound, in my view they are more complimentary than different, they are like a two dimensional jigsaw, when joined up becomes three-dimensional. In Dharana you are training the mind. It is the beginning of meditation. Concentration is the beginning of meditation. Normally, we see our mind running here and there. When we try to fix it on one thing, within a fraction of a second we see it somewhere else, keeping it fixed on one thing is concentration. Meditation is the culmination of concentration, continuous flow; it is like pouring oil from one pot into another. The mind is fixed; communication between meditator and object is steady. Time and space has no meaning in meditation; when you feel five minutes as an hour, you are not meditating; you are still concentrating, whereas when an hour feels like five minutes that is meditation. Meditation culminates in the state of Samadhih. One cant consciously practice Samadhih. In Samadhih there is neither the object nor the meditator. There is no feeling of I am meditating on that.